Which ancient practice involved drilling holes in the skull to release evil spirits?

Freud is most closely associated with which perspective?

Drop some knowledge on me! Teach me something you learned in this module and tell me why it stood out to you.  (The more information/detail you give, the more points you get.)

Initial Post on Urinary Tract Infections  Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are one of the most common bacterial infections, especially in women. A UTI develops when bacteria enter the urinary tract and starts growing. The urinary tract is made up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Most infections affect the bladder, which is known as cystitis. If the infection spreads to the kidneys, it becomes more serious and is called pyelonephritis. The most common cause of UTI is Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacteria which normally lives in the gastrointestinal tract. Women are more likely to develop UTIs because their urethra is shorter, allowing bacteria to reach the bladder more quickly. Risk factors include sexual activity, pregnancy, postmenopausal changes, improper wiping techniques, urinary retention, catheter use, and a history of previous infections (Schmiemann et al., 2024). There is also some evidence that genetics can play a role. Certain people may have differences in their immune system or urinary tract lining that make it easier for bacteria to attach and cause infection. Symptoms can vary depending on how severe the infection is. Most people with a bladder infection experience burning with urination, urinary urgency, cloudy or strong-smelling urine, and lower abdominal discomfort. If the infection spreads to the kidneys, symptoms may include fever, flank pain, nausea, vomiting, and chills. In older adults, confusion may sometimes be the only noticeable symptom. During a physical assessment, providers often check for abdominal tenderness or costovertebral angle tenderness if kidney involvement is suspected. Diagnosis of a UTI is often based on symptoms and urinalysis. A urine dipstick test may show leukocyte esterase, nitrites, or white blood cells, indicating infection. For patients with recurrent urinary tract infections (defined as two infections in six months or three in one year), a urine culture is recommended to confirm the specific bacteria and guide treatment (Schiemann et al., 2024). Imaging such as ultrasound may be used if structural abnormalities are suspected. Current clinical practice guidelines emphasize avoiding unnecessary antibiotics and confirming infection before starting long-term preventive treatment. Treatment for uncomplicated UTIs typically includes short-course antibiotic therapy such as nitrofurantoin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (depending on resistance rates), or fosfomycin. These medications are very effective, but repeated antibiotic use can increase resistance. For patients with recurrent UTIs, daily or post-coital antibiotic prophylaxis may reduce recurrence, but it carries a risk of side effects and antibiotic resistance (Schiemann et al., 2024). Because of these concerns, non-antibiotic prevention methods are becoming more common. A recent systematic review found that methenamine may be an effective alternative for preventing recurrent UTIs and showed similar effectiveness to antibiotics without increasing adverse effects (Davidson et al.,2024). Other prevention strategies include increasing daily fluid intake, cranberry products, taking mannose supplements, and vaginal estrogen therapy for postmenopausal women (Schmiemann et al., 2024). These options support antimicrobial stewardship while still helping reduce recurrence. New therapies are also being studied. One recent clinical trial examined a CRISPR-enhanced bacteriophage therapy targeting E. coli in uncomplicated UTIs and showed promising early results (Kim et al., 2024). While this therapy is not yet standard practice, it may become an important option in the future as antibiotic resistance continues to rise. Overall, Urinary tract infections are very common but can significantly impact a person’s quality of life, especially when they are recurrent. Proper diagnosis, evidence-based treatment, and individualized prevention strategies are important in reducing recurrence and preventing complications. As antibiotic resistance continues to grow, healthcare providers must balance effective treatment with responsible antibiotic use.  References Davidson, S. M., Brown, J. N., Nance, C. B., & Townsend, M. L. (2024). Use of methenamine for urinary tract infection prophylaxis: Systematic review of recent evidence. International Urogynecology Journal. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-024-05726-2](https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-024-05726-2)Links to an external site. Kim, P., Sanchez, A. M., Penke, T. J. R., et al. (2024). Safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of LBP-EC01, a CRISPR-Cas3-enhanced bacteriophage cocktail, in uncomplicated urinary tract infections due to Escherichia coli (ELIMINATE): The randomized, open-label, first part of a two-part phase 2 trial. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(24)00424-9](https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099%2824%2900424-9)Links to an external site. Schmiemann, G., Kranz, J., Mandraka, F., Schubert, S., Wagenlehner, F., & Gágyor, I. (2024). The diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of recurrent urinary tract infection. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. [https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.m2024.0068](https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.m2024.0068)

Initial Post on Appendicitis In order to understand appendicitis or inflammation of the appendix, someone must first understand what the appendix is. “The appendix is a small, worm-like diverticulum of the caecum, and it serves a role in regulating intestinal microbiota and immunology” (Salminen et al., 2025). Appendicitis can occur in a wide range of patients, but it most often occurs in young adulthood. Acute appendicitis is one of the most commonly reported abdominal emergencies, but it can range in severity and effect. While there are still a lot of gaps in what we know about appendicitis, we do know that those who just present with acute appendicitis are at significantly less risk than someone who presents with perforation and peritonitis of the appendix as well. Perforation is when the inflamed appendix tears release bacteria filled pus into the abdominal cavity, peritonitis is when this bacteria causes infection of the peritoneum, and the only way to remedy this issue is emergency surgery. This emergency surgery can provide life-saving support to individuals who have appendix ruptures, which is another way to say perforations.  Etiology and Genetic Disposition Although there is still some guesswork involved with the etiology of appendicitis in people because the appendix is a nonfunctional organ, therefore, there has been less research done on it than on other organs, the hypothesis is that appendicitis results from a nearby blockage, commonly caused by stool (Capriotti, 2024). This blockage can also occur when the nearby lymph nodes become inflamed and compress the appendix. Appendicitis can also occur when the appendix becomes twisted by bowel movements. As a result of either of these things, the protective layer of mucosa becomes compromised, and luminal bacteria multiply and attack the wall of the appendix, which causes inflammation. When this inflammation is coupled with tissue ischemia, that is when perforation of the appendix occurs, tearing the appendix. Once the appendix has torn, the bacteria and mucus that were inside the appendix then spill out into the abdominal cavity, causing peritonitis. Dietary fiber has been found to help lower the chances of developing appendicitis, and therefore, cultures where fiber is consumed more regularly also report fewer instances of appendicitis. There is some genetic predisposition to appendicitis, because it has been found that having a family history of it increases the likelihood of the disorder, especially in males. Also, if someone in your family has cystic fibrosis, it has been reported to put children at a higher risk of appendicitis.  Assessment and Clinical Manifestations To begin the process of assessing someone with appendicitis, the individual must first complain of pain in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen (Salminen et al., 2025). This pain will often start mild and grow more severe as time progresses. The pain often also seems to increase with any sort of jarring movements, these can include coughing or taking deep breaths. Some people will also report nausea, vomiting, anorexia, fever, and chills present along with their pain. Constipation or diarrhea, and abdominal bloating are often present in acute appendicitis. Patients with appendicitis have also shown increased levels of procalcitonin and IL-6 when lab work was done. Patients who are suspected to have only acute appendicitis are often only assessed on these things, while a patient who is suspected to have a perforation will often get a CT-scan, abdominal ultrasound, or an X-ray to determine for sure before they have an appendectomy. An ultrasound will not be able to view a regular appendix, only one that is significantly inflamed and in the process of perforation. Urinalysis is often used to rule out the possibility of kidney stones or pyelonephritis, which can present similarly to appendicitis, and a pelvic examination and hCG blood test would be done on all females post pubescent age in order to rule out any chances of pregnancy. Current Clinical Practice Standards Treatment of individuals is case-by-case and depends on whether it is just acute appendicitis or if perforation is also present. Early treatment often consists of antibiotics that affect gram-negative bacteria, in surgeries case these should be administered pre-surgery and then 48 hours post-surgery as well (Capriotti, 2024). In a lot of cases, an appendectomy is required, which can be because of a chance or perforation, or because of the recurrence of appendicitis to the point it is messing with the patient’s life. An emergency surgery might be required in the case that the perforation has caused peritonitis. There are two different types of appendectomies, laparoscopic and open. The use of these two surgeries greatly depends on the hospital and the readily available resources. Patients who only underwent antibiotics presented on a similar pain scale, but were often able to return to life faster than those who underwent an appendectomy. Approximately 70% of those patients were able to avoid surgery entirely, while the remaining 30% eventually required appendectomies for recurring appendicitis or severe symptoms of abdominal pain. In conclusion, appendicitis can be a very painful and serious disease in some cases, and in serious cases, if left untreated, it can lead to death. If someone is having significant pain in the lower right quadrant of their abdomen, it is a good idea for them to take that to a health care provider instead of continuously popping pain relievers to deal with the signs of appendicitis, especially if that individual has a family history of appendicitis. Appendicitis can be a fairly quick fix, even though the surgery itself isn’t an extremely intensive recovery, as long as someone doesn’t let the perforation turn into peritonitis and let that turn into sepsis. This condition is not rare, and should not be something people are terrified of, but rather something people are informed of just in case. References Bhaskar, K., Clarke, S., Moore, L. S. P., & Hughes, S. (2023). Bacterial peritonitis in paediatric appendicitis; microbial epidemiology and antimicrobial management. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 22(1), 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12941-023-00591-1 Capriotti, T. M. (2024). Pathophysiology: Introductory Concepts and Clinical Perspectives. (3rd ed.). F.A. Davis. Salminen, P., Jussi Haijanen, Minneci, P. C., Davidson, G. H., Boermeester, M. A., Livingston, E., Andersson, R. E., Lee, K. H., & Flum, D. (2025). Appendicitis. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 11(1), 79–79. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-025-00659-6 Shahmoradi, M. K., Zarei, F., Beiranvand, M., & Hosseinnia, Z. (2021). A retrospective descriptive study based on etiology of appendicitis among patients undergoing appendectomy. International Journal of Surgery Open, 31, 100326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijso.2021.100326

Please enter the prompt you chose. You only have to type in “1” or “2” or “3” in the space provided.

Positive staining techniques use a(n) ___________ dye to stain ________________.

Simple cells, like bacteria, that do not contain a nucleus have traditionally been called: 

A patient goes to the dermatologist after suffering from reoccurring dandruff. They determine that the dandruff is being caused by the fungus T. beigelii. This patient has what type of fungal mycoses. 

My office is located where if you want to stop for help, tutoring, etc. ?