Mongol invasions seriously threatened Muslim lands in the thirteenth century, ultimately leading to the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate when Chinggis Khan’s grandson, Hülegü, sacked Baghdad in 1258 and killed the last Abbasid Caliph. In 1260, at [BLANK-1], Egyptian Mamluk soldiers defeated the Mongols and spurned their advance into Egypt. Victory in this conflict potentially saved much of African and European Muslim lands from falling to the Mongols. The death of the Great Khan recalled Mongol armies to the capital of Karakorum and ended the threat of Mongol conquest of Muslim Egypt and beyond.

Muhammad gave Muslims the idea of a unified [BLANK-1]. This was a community that consisted of all people whose bond was a common religious faith. This concept was instrumental in helping Islam become both a political and religious movement; it also facilitated conversion to the faith.

[BLANK-1] brought an end to the Warring States Period, ruled China during the Qin Dynasty, and – through the powerful minister named Li Si – promoted legalism as a political doctrine.

Muhammad’s life, as demonstrated in the Hadith provides the “normative example” of a well-lived life for a Muslim believer, a concept that came to be known as [BLANK-1].

Ancient Egypt’s fiercest foe during [BLANK-1] was a group of Indo-Eurasian speaking people who settled in Anatolia known as the Hittites. In 1258 B.C.E., Pharaoh Ramses II established a peace treaty with this group but it failed to lead to continued peace between the groups. This period of Egyptian history also saw Akhenaten’s religious revolution as well as an emphasis on military expansion

The exceptionally long reign of [BLANK-1] may have led to the fall of Egypt’s Old Kingdom. This pharaoh outlived his own heirs, leading to a succession crisis upon the pharaoh’s death.

Dictator was an official Roman position during the Republican Era. In times of crisis, the Roman Republic would name a man dictator and give him absolute power in order to manage the crisis; Roman law mandated that the dictator had to relinquish his emergency powers after six months. One Roman general, [BLANK-1], gained power and ruled as a dictator in 81 B.C.E.; however, he refused to give up his power for nine years. This violation of the republican constitution and the shattering of the Roman traditions it represented helped to hasten the end of the Roman Republic.

Sargon installed his own daughter, [BLANK-1], as the high priestess of the city of Ur. Her appointment cemented his goodwill among religious establishments and ameliorated the people of Ur to Sargon’s rule. This woman composed a number of hymns to the moon god, making her the first woman in history to be the named author of a written document.

After the Bronze Age Collapse, the Kingdom of Kush rose to power in Nubia and, thanks in part to its abundance of iron ore, expanded its territory into Egypt. A Black Kushite King named [BLANK-1] conquered southern Egypt and by 727 B.C.E. ruled the entire Nile Valley to the delta in the North. He united Egypt once more and Egypt enjoyed a brief period of prosperity under his and his son’s rule.

Drinking alcohol or taking drugs, gambling, price-gouging, usury, and eating pork and shellfish are [BLANK-1] in Islam. This means that these actions are forbidden to Muslims.