Read the passage and answer the questions. (1) The Norman Co…
Read the passage and answer the questions. (1) The Norman Conquest forced the creation of a new way of English life, strongly influencing the language of law, religion, medicine, and the arts. Because French and Latin speakers held political and social power, the Britons had to borrow words simply to communicate with their new rulers, who had ousted much of the local linguistic influence. (2) According to linguist Otto Jespersen, many Britons adopted French vocabulary not only to communicate, but also because it became fashionable to imitate their social superiors. While some might view this behavior as snobbery, many people naturally strive to improve their language skills. For example, saying that someone tried to overthrow a government is clear, but using the borrowed phrase coup d’état adds a stronger sense of immediacy. Similarly, calling a woman stylish is acceptable, but substituting the French word chic often creates greater impact. Borrowed words expand vocabulary and enable more precise communication, contributing to the growth of English dictionaries. (3) It is understandable that the Britons would borrow words for concepts that did not exist in their native language, such as majesty and mayor. However, it is less obvious why they would replace existing words. One example is the replacement of the Old English swin with the French-derived porc. This change reflects social distinctions: English peasants raised the animals, while French aristocrats ate the meat. As a result, Germanic words often referred to animals, while French words referred to food, reinforcing social hierarchy through language. (4) One remarkable feature of English is how receptive its speakers have been to outside linguistic influence, especially from French and Latin. English seems inclined to collect multiple synonymous words rather than rely on a single term, as its speakers are wont to do.The focus is often on the Norman Conquest, but other languages also contributed to English vocabulary. As England experienced its emergence as a global power through exploration and colonial expansion, it gained contact with unfamiliar lands and peoples. By the early twentieth century, the British Empire held sway over vast territories and populations. This exposure introduced objects and experiences for which no native English terms existed, so the Britons borrowed words to describe what they encountered. (5) There were no boomerangs or kangaroos in England, so when Britons first saw them, borrowing the Australian terms was the easiest solution. Likewise, animals such as elephants, leopards, and panthers were unknown in England, and their names had to be borrowed. Even the tomato, introduced from the New World, was named by adapting the Spanish word tomate. Many of these once-foreign words now easily roll off the tongues of English speakers. Words such as kindergarten, baguette, croissant, and bagel have become ingrained in everyday English. However, not all borrowed or exotic words remain familiar. Author Jack Lynch brings up the Arabic jihad and questions whether it is an English word yet. Before September 11, 2001, I doubt many English speakers had heard of the word. By September 12, I believe that jihad was as familiar a phrase to us as the word bread. (6) Some borrowed words rise quickly and then fade just as fast. Linguist Anatoly Liberman points to the Russian words sputnik and perestroika, which briefly dominated public discussion but are now rarely understood. Many modern readers would struggle to fathom how quickly these words entered English usage. Liberman, in one of his lectures, illustrated the borrowed words sputnik and perestroika. At various points in time, these borrowed words were all the rage. While I was too young to comprehend sputnik when it was launched, throughout my early school years, I learned its significance. Yet, I doubt that any person in high school today would understand the word or would fathom how quickly it was borrowed into the English language. As Liberman explains, borrowed words are often “the result of language contact in a certain place at a certain time.” Words such as sputnik and perestroika are examples of etymons, foreign source words from which loanwords are derived. Because they failed to form strong connections with other English words, they likely lack staying power and have been consigned to linguistic obscurity. 1. In paragraph 1, “…their new rulers, who had ousted much of the local linguistic influence,” the word “ousted” most nearly means
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