Which of the following best defines a confounder in a clinical trial?

Which of the following applies to population based decisions? Select all that apply

A survival analysis comparing two cancer treatments reports a hazard ratio of 2.5 for the standard treatment group compared to the experimental group. What does this mean?

Evaluation of inclusion and exclusion criteria are two of the major considerations when evaluating clinical trials.

In a study examining the relationship between dosage of Drug Y and its effect on blood pressure, the regression slope is 0.45. What does this mean?

To conduct a successful literature search, information must be retrieved in the following order:

A group of patients with hypertension is monitored before and after a 12-week exercise program. The goal is to determine if their mean systolic blood pressure has significantly decreased. Which test should be used?

A study measures patient adherence before and after a counseling intervention. The researchers want a test that considers both the direction and magnitude of change. Which test should they use?

In a study evaluating a new vaccine, the Relative Risk for infection in the vaccinated group compared to the unvaccinated group is 0.25. What does this indicate?

In a trial assessing smoking cessation, caffeine use is associated with both smoking and anxiety—the outcome being studied. This is an example of: