[BLANK-1] was a political ideology that emerged in the early nineteenth century in response to the French Revolution. It was perhaps the most radical and also the most influential of the ideologies to emerge from the era. Early adherents of this ideology argued that each ethnic people had their own spirit and cultural unity, which manifested itself especially in a common language and history and could serve as the basis for an independent political state. Adherents argued that these unified groups of people should rule themselves. As the ideology progressed, some theorists added nuance to the ideology suggesting that the origins of the unified groups of people came from industrial demands on society, not pro-modern origins. Others argued that these groups were imagined communities as modern societies were too large and diverse to truly represent one people with a common language, culture, and history. This political ideology merged with other ideologies of the nineteenth century to strengthen each movement. Key supporters include Johan Gottfried Herder, Giuseppe Mazzini, Otto von Bismarck, and Giuseppe Garibaldi.

Now the French National Anthem, [BLANK-1] was a war-time song that developed in southern France during the more radical phases of the French Revolution. The lyrics of the song (such as “to arms, citizens, form your battalions, let’s march, let’s march, until impure blood waters the furrows of our fields” and “may your perishing enemies see your triumph and our glory” illustrate the nationalist ideology that was present in France at the time and the violent, warlike attitude that went with defending the fatherland.

Pope Paul III established the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, or [BLANK-1] for short, in the 1530s. This body held judicial authority over the members of its faith and had the power to imprison and execute offenders of the faith. This institution famously opposed many of the ideas that arose during the Scientific Revolution, such as the theory of the heliocentric universe. Galileo Galilei was a famous scientist put on ecumenical trial by this body. Galileo was accused of heresy for publishing a book suggesting that the planets revolved around the Sun, not the Earth. He recanted after being threatened with torture, but was still placed on house arrest for the remainder of his life.

[BLANK-1] was a form of proto-industrialization that occurred prior to the factory work of the Industrial Revolution. With this process, an entrepreneur would provide a family with raw materials and the family would work to produce a manufactured product on their own time before the entrepreneur returned with their wages and more raw materials to be manufactured into a finished product. With this system families controlled the pace of their labor.

One of the first authoritative histories of the French Revolution was written by [BLANK-1], a Marxist historian who argued that the French Revolution was the definitive model of all bourgeois revolutions. Modern historians generally regard his interpretation as incorrect and embrace revisionist interpretations, rather than Marxist interpretations, of the French Revolution.

Later revealed to have been the great-grandson of Altan Khan, [BLANK-1] played a significantly role in converting the many Mongols to Tibetan Buddhism and in easing the relations between the Mongols and the Ming Dynasty in China. Buddhism’s emphasis on non-violence helped to pacify the Mongol military threat to China.

During the Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, the French army that had been called in to keep the peace joined the rioting citizens and laid siege to the prison-fortress. At that point, the army became the people’s army known as [BLANK-1]. The following day, the Marquis de Lafayette (a hero of the American Revolution) was given command of the body.

[BLANK-1] were female sex slaves common among the wealthy. Sultans maintained a practice of having a harem of these women with whom they fathered children as heirs to the throne rather than marrying. One notable counterexample to this was Suleiman the Magnificent, who married Hürrem, a woman who had previously been his sex slave.

First established by Oliver Cromwell in England in 1651, then extended later in the century, [BLANK-1] served as a form of economic warfare against the Netherlands. These policies damaged Dutch shipping and by the end of the century helped England surpass the Netherlands as Europe’s greatest naval force in terms of shipping, commerce, trade, and settlement. They required most goods imported to England and Scotland to be carried on British-owned ships with British crews or on ships of the country producing the imported items.

Potential administrators competed at the prefectural, provincial, and capital levels through [BLANK-1]. Candidates had to study the Confucian classics and the Neo-Confucian interpretations of Zhu Xi. Quotas from each region were established and the process was exceedingly competitive, but produced excellent administrators.