Gottfredson and Hirschi attribute low self-control to:

When the state punishes a criminal offender with the intent of engendering fear in others who might be tempted to commit crime, the goal that is being sought is:

According to Akers, ______, or mimicking others, influences if people engage in criminal behavior.

Early criminological positivists viewed crime as:

According to Matza’s “drift” theory, youths who become delinquent:

“Macro” theories of criminal behavior focus on:

The term “atavism” refers to:

According to Matza’s “drift theory,” youths who become delinquent:

Which of the following does not reflect the characteristics of an optimist?

If a theory of crime causation is parsimonious, then: