A 60-year-old male with metastatic melanoma undergoes genotyping of his tumor cells, revealing a BRAF mutation.  What is the significance of this finding for his treatment? 

A 45-year-old male is diagnosed with a type of cancer that involves a mutation in a proto-oncogene, converting it into an oncogene.  What type of mutation is most likely responsible for this conversion? 

A 70-year-old male with a history of chronic inflammatory conditions presents with new-onset fatigue and weight loss. Laboratory tests reveal elevated inflammatory markers and abnormal white blood cell counts.  What is the most likely explanation for his increased cancer risk? 

A 6-year-old boy has difficulty rising from the floor without using his hands and walks with a waddling gait. What is the most likely underlying condition? 

A 50-year-old male is undergoing chemotherapy that targets rapidly dividing cells by disrupting DNA replication.  Which phase of the cell cycle is primarily affected by this treatment? 

Which cytokines are commonly produced by Th1 cells to promote cell-mediated immunity? 

A 45-year-old male with melanoma is found to have high levels of PD-L1 expression on tumor cells.  How does PD-L1 expression contribute to cancer progression? 

A patient receives a vaccine that induces a strong Tfh cell response. What is the expected outcome of this response? 

A 40-year-old female with a history of radiation exposure presents with a tumor. Her cells show an inability to arrest the cell cycle in response to DNA damage.  Which checkpoint is most likely defective in her cells? 

How do oncogenes contribute to cancer development?