Between 1455 and 1471, the ducal houses of York and Lancaster fought [BLANK-1] in England. The conflict led to the fall of the Plantagenet Dynasty and the foundation of the Tudor line by Henry VII.

A protégé of his patron, Lorenzo de’ Medici, [BLANK-1] was a youthful prodigy and an example of humanist thought during the Italian Renaissance. In 1486, his most notable work, On the Dignity of Man, made an impassioned summary of peoples’ positive qualities and capacities for learning.

Particularly following the Iconoclastic Controversy, [BLANK-1] was particularly bland with non-specific depictions of people, poor perspective, poor anatomy, and repetitive themes. The Catholic Church was overwhelmingly the dominant patron of these works and set guidelines for the themes they requested. Madonna and Child, the Annunciation, and the Crucifixion of Jesus were common subjects.

[BLANK-1] formed a type of world economy during the Middle Ages, linking products, people, and ideas from across continents. It was centered on the Indian Ocean and it increased from the seventh to the fourteenth century.

A 1648 treaty known as [BLANK-1] is one of the most meaningful events in human history. This treaty not only ended the devastating Thirty Years’ War, but it also made Calvinism and Lutheranism recognized Christian sects and brought an end to the large-scale religious violence in Europe for many decades. This treaty further recognized the independence of more than 300 Germanic provinces and principalities. Perhaps most importantly, it set the foundation for modern conceptions of the nation-state and national sovereignty.

Decades of religious violence between Catholic and Protestant Christians was sparked by the Protestant Reformation. A 1556 agreement known as [BLANK-1], however, officially recognized Lutheranism as a legitimate Christian religion. The Habsburg patriarch, and ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V, was forced to sign this treaty in spite of being one of Catholicism’s staunchest supporters.

Accomplished by Mehmet II in 1453, [BLANK-1] is one of the most impactful events in world history. With this event, the Ottoman Empire was effectively born. As a result, the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) that had reigned for more than 1,000 years collapsed. Additionally, it paved the way for Muslim expansion into the Balkans and Eastern Europe, leading to the enslavement of white Christian boys by Muslim Turks. It also closed Black Sea Markets to European traders, including the prized slave markets of white Slavic slaves from the Caucasus Mountains. As a result, Europeans turned to Africa in order to acquire slaves. From that point on, African slaves would be central to European slave trading.

While women in the Renaissance were barred from universities and artistic academies, some women became very well educated through tutors and male family members. [BLANK-1] was such a woman who embodied the ideals of Renaissance Humanism and the importance of an education in the humanities. She believed that studying literature was essential to understanding human nature but also recognized that it provided great pleasure. She recognized that the study of literature and the humanities might not offer women any practical advantages in public life, but she believed that “women must nonetheless pursue and embrace such studies alone for the pleasure and enjoyment they contain.”

The Medici family home in Florence was called [BLANK-1]. It was a massive structure with an expansive manicured garden. The interior of their home reflected their status as both the wealthiest family in Florence (and Europe itself) and as the Italian Renaissance’s chief patrons. The walls and ceilings were decked with art from the artists they patronized. Their art-adorned home emphasizes the point that in this era, centuries before the birth of the public museum, artwork was a status symbol of wealth and taste; it was generally located in private homes or public state buildings.

Which PCR control ensures the integrity of the extraction and amplification process?