The genetic code is described as “redundant” or “degenerate” because a single amino acid can be encoded by more than one codon. What is a major advantage of this redundancy?

One of the common concerns regarding genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is that they pose a health risk to humans. What does the overwhelming consensus of peer-reviewed scientific studies and major scientific organizations say about the safety of currently available GMOs?

What amino acid sequence would be produced from the following mRNA sequence 5−AUG−CCG−UGU−UAA−3′?

When lactose is present in the environment, it binds to the repressor protein of the lac operon. This binding causes the repressor to change shape and detach from the DNA. What is the result of the repressor detaching from the DNA?

A double-stranded DNA molecule has a coding strand with the sequence 5′-ATG-CGC-TAC-3′ and a template strand with the sequence 3′-TAC-GCG-ATG-5′. What is the sequence of the mRNA transcript that would be produced from this gene?

When a person eats a meal rich in carbohydrates, their pancreatic cells begin to produce and secrete the protein insulin, which helps the body process sugar. When the blood sugar returns to normal, the insulin production stops. What is the benefit of this ability to turn gene expression on and off in response to a signal?

In the lac operon, when glucose levels are low, a protein called the catabolite activator protein (CAP) binds to the promoter region and helps RNA polymerase bind more efficiently, thereby increasing the rate of transcription. What type of control is this?

A friend tells you she thinks genetically modified organisms are harmful to the environment, too dangerous to use, and that she avoids them. How might you respond to her comments, and what factual information could you share that might help her understand them better and perhaps worry less? How are GMOs created and used, and how does this compare with traditional breeding approaches? Please explain briefly but clearly in a full paragraph (minimum 4-5 sentences).

A scientist is studying a patient with a rare disease. She analyzes the patient’s entire DNA sequence to look for genetic mutations that might be causing the illness. Another scientist is studying all the proteins expressed in the patient’s liver cells at a specific time to understand how the disease is affecting cell function. What are the names of these two fields of study, respectively?

While mRNA vaccines have numerous benefits, they also present unique challenges. Which of the following is a significant challenge associated with the development and storage of the original COVID mRNA vaccines?