An elderly patient’s blood pressure is repeatedly 170 / 80 mmHg. Desirable BP is -80 mmHg. Of the choices provided, what is the most likely cause for the patient’s hypertension?

What is the major mechanism whereby lupus nephritis damages the kidney?

A marathon runner collapses near the finish line. The runner took in 2 liters of water orally per hour during their 4 hour run. Assuming that they collapsed due to an electrolyte disorder, which is the most likely cause of his collapse?

The aldosterone receptor inhibitor spironolactone is considered a potassium-sparing diuretic. Given what you know about the site of aldosterone action in the nephron, which nephron segment(s) and sodium transporter(s) might be affected by spironolactone treatment?

How is the renal cortico-medullary interstitial osmotic gradient formed?

The patient is 52 year-old man with long-standing diabetes and thin renal cortex on the ultrasound. Given the following data, what most properly explains the patient’s hemoglobin concentration? 

An elderly frail woman has fever, dysuria, nausea, vomiting and flank pain. The urinalysis demonstrates pyuria, white blood cell casts, hematuria, positive leukocyte esterase and gram-negative rods on Gram stain. What should next be done immediately in terms of her medical management?

What are the the unique and specific staining characteristics and molecular structure of all forms of amyloid?

Which one of the following factors oppose glomerular filtration in healthy humans?

A 74-year old man presents in the emergency room with weakness, back pain and decreased urinary output. His calcium is 13.2 mg/dL (Reference interval: 8.5 – 10.5 mg/dL). The serum creatinine is 1.9 mg/dL (reference interval: 0.5-1.2 mg/dL). His hemoglobin is 11 g/dL (reference interval: 12.5-16.5 g/dL). Two days later a renal biopsy is performed (see image). What is the most likely underlying pathogenesis of this disorder?