​Convict labor for profit became an essential part of the Pennsylvania penitentiary system throughout the early 1800s.

The argument that African Americans are more criminal than whites by nature is not sustained by the evidence.​

Probation officers rely upon their authority because they have little substantive power.

​In most parts of United States, executions were carried out in public until the:

Ethnicity relates to a person’s language, religion, and group traditions.​

Community justice approaches always respect individual rights.​

According to the authors, until the mid-1700s criminal punishment in Europe and American colonies focused on which of the following?​

One of the most disturbing aspects of contemporary U.S. society is the increasing proportion of children who live in poverty.​

​Proponents who say that nothing should be done about prison overcrowding subscribe to which strategy?

Prison crowding directly affects the ability of correctional staff to do their work because it decreases the proportion of offenders in programs, increases the potential for violence, and strains morale.​