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Pаssаge 3 | Whо Wаs Genghis Khan? [A] In the 1160s, оn the flоodplains of the Onon River in northeastern Mongolia, a boy named Tamujin was born. As a young man, he organized an alliance of rival tribes among those of the grasslands north of the Gobi desert. Years later, as the fierce warrior-leader Genghis Khan, he led a vast army of nomads out of the grasslands, across deserts, and against societies who had the misfortune to share time and space with the all-powerful Mongols ... [B] 1220. Samarkand, Central Asia. From the city's northwest gate, the inhabitants of Samarkand could only watch in terror as the enormous army approached. Perhaps 80,000 riders could be seen. According to one writer, they appeared "more numerous than ants or locusts, [more than] the sand in the desert, or drops of rain." Before them, the approaching riders drove thousands of captured civilians as a human shield. [C] The city they approached was the capital of Shah Muhammad of the Khwarezm, the center of an empire that included parts of modern-day Afghanistan and Iran. Earlier, the Shah had executed the Mongol ambassador and had sent back the man's head to Genghis Khan, infuriating the Mongol leader. Shah Muhammad had 110,000 troops in the city, but most were poorly disciplined and fled even before the Mongol army arrived. After just a day's fighting, the city gates were opened, and the Shah's people were forced to beg the Mongols for mercy, which they did not receive. [D] Today, there is barely anything left of the once-powerful city of Samarkand. The city was once famed for its copper and silver artisans. An advanced aqueduct system once brought water to the city, making gardens bloom in the dry lands. Today, there is only grass and some occasional bricks. A modern-day Samarkand has grown in its place, but of the original city's great workshops and palaces, nothing remains. [E] The Mongols destroyed every building in the city, killing most of its citizens and taking away many of the survivors to serve as slaves. A city of over 200,000 was erased from the earth. Where the city's mosque once was, archeologist Yuri Buryakov has found the burnt bones of the mosque's defenders. "[T]here were soldiers who did not want to surrender," he says. A thousand withdrew to the mosque, hoping that the Mongols would not kill them there. "But to Mongols it didn't make any difference. They would kill anywhere." [F] Similar stories can be told of other great cities of Central Asia: Bukhara, Balkh, Herat, Ghazni. One after another, they fell to the horsemen who burst from the grasslands of Mongolia. In Afghanistan, even after 750 years, people speak of the Mongol attack as if it happened yesterday. "Only nine!" exclaims one old man in the once elegant city of Herat. "That is all that survived here - nine people!" [G] The name of Genghis Khan brings to mind the most completely ruthless and murderous of history's conquerors. Accounts like that of Samarkand and Herat, rich in poetic exaggeration, seem to be part myth and part history. Experts on 12th-century sources, however, find that some writings need to be critically interpreted to produce a more balanced view of the man and his times. [H] Genghis Khan's love of conquest appears evident in a quotation attributed to him: "Man's greatest good fortune is to chase and defeat his enemy, seize his total possessions, leave his married women weeping ..." In 1215, in the early days of Mongol empire building, Genghis Khan's armies surrounded the city of Zhongdu (modern-day Beijing). Years later, a traveler who noticed a white hill was told it was the bones of Zhongdu's inhabitants. It is said that even on his death bed, Genghis Khan ordered the killing of the entire population of Xi Xia, a neighboring state that had defied him. [I] Yet the reputation of Genghis Khan as an utterly ruthless warrior may be worse than the reality. Much of our information comes from chroniclers of the time who often exaggerated the facts. It is possible they were encouraged by their Mongol employers to exaggerate the tales of cruelty so that the Mongols appeared more frightening to their enemies. In the city of Nishapur, a chronicler wrote that the Mongols were brutal to the extent that even the city's dogs and cats were killed. "There's no question that there was a great deal of destruction," says Mongol expert Morris Rossabi. "[But] not all the cities were butchered." The Secret History of the Mongols, an account of Genghis Khan's early life and the oldest surviving literary work in the Mongolian language, may also have bent the truth so as to enhance his reputation. "It is full of myths and legends," says historian Larry Moses, although "some of it can be [supported by] Chinese sources." [J] In his homeland, Genghis Khan's reputation needs little enhancement. There he is revered as the first ruler of a united Mongolia, and his face can be found on paper currency. Mongolian historian Shirendev Bagaryn interprets Genghis Khan's conquests in a more positive light: "When you are eating," he says, "your appetite grows. Once you are strong you want to go find out how other people live ... He needed their knowledge to develop his country" - for example, by borrowing the written script that his neighbors used in western China. Other historians believe that Genghis was driven less by a thirst for land than by a need to feed his people: "I don't think he consciously set out to be a conqueror," says Rossabi. "In general, he didn't try to hold on to territory, except for Mongolia." [K] At the age of about 60, after conquering much of continental Asia, Genghis Khan died, possibly after falling from his horse. His body was taken back to Mongolia for burial. Of his grave, like much of the societies he conquered, nothing remains. According to one Persian historian, Genghis Khan was "possessed of great energy ... a genius ... a butcher, just, resolute ... and cruel," which might serve as a fair epitaph. It is true that the Mongols under Genghis Khan committed ruthless acts, killing armies as well as peaceful citizens and forcing millions to accept their rule. But the 13th century saw many wars where cruelty was the norm. It could be argued that Genghis Khan was simply a man of his time, a man who happened to be a brilliant military leader, and who gave to his descendants the greatest empire - and the most powerful army - the world had ever seen. Passage 3 | Question 1 What is the author's central theme about Genghis Khan in this passage?